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Osnabrück

Coordinates: 52°17′N 8°3′E / 52.283°N 8.050°E / 52.283; 8.050
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"Osnabruck" redirects here. For the township in eastern Ontario, Canada, see South Stormont.

Osnabrück
Ossenbrügge (Westphalian)
City
City centre of Osnabrück
City centre of Osnabrück
Flag of Osnabrück
Flag
Coat of arms of Osnabrück
Coat of arms
Location of Osnabrück
Map
Osnabrück is located in Germany
Osnabrück
Osnabrück
Osnabrück is located in Lower Saxony
Osnabrück
Osnabrück
Coordinates: 52°17′N 8°3′E / 52.283°N 8.050°E / 52.283; 8.050
CountryGermany
StateLower Saxony
DistrictUrban district
Government
 • Lord mayor (2021–26) Katharina Pötter[1] (CDU)
Area
 • City119.80 km2 (46.26 sq mi)
Elevation
63 m (207 ft)
Population
 (2022-12-31)[2]
 • City167,366
 • Density1,400/km2 (3,600/sq mi)
 • Metro
272,674
Time zoneUTC+01:00 (CET)
 • Summer (DST)UTC+02:00 (CEST)
Postal codes
49074–49090
Dialling codes0541
Vehicle registrationOS
Websitewww.osnabrueck.de

Osnabrück (German: [ɔsnaˈbʁʏk] ⓘ; Westphalian: Ossenbrügge; archaic English: Osnaburg) is a city in Lower Saxony in western Germany. It is situated on the river Hase in a valley penned between the Wiehen Hills and the northern tip of the Teutoburg Forest. With a population of 168,145[3] Osnabrück is the fourth largest city in Lower Saxony.

More recently Osnabrück has become well known for its industry. Numerous companies in the automobile, paper, steel and grocery sectors are located in the city and its surrounding area.[4] In spite of the massive destruction inflicted on the city during World War II, the Altstadt (old town) was eventually reconstructed extensively with designs loyal to the original medieval architecture there. Osnabrück was also the home of the largest British garrison outside the United Kingdom.[5] Osnabrück's modern, urban image is enhanced by the presence of more than 22,000 students studying at the University and the University of Applied Sciences.[6] Although part of the state of Lower Saxony, historically, culturally and linguistically Osnabrück is considered part of the region of Westphalia.

Name

[edit]
Old town hall
See also: Names of European cities in different languages: Osnabrück

The origin of the name Osnabrück is disputed. The suffix -brück suggests a bridge over or to something (from German Brücke = bridge) but the prefix Osna- is explained in at least two different ways: the traditional explanation is that today's name is a corruption[clarification needed] of Ossenbrügge (westphalian meaning "oxen bridge"), which is etymologically and historically impossible, because the town is older than this corruption of consonants (documented in 13th century, Osnabrück was founded in 8th century), but others state that it is derived from the name of the Hase River which is arguably derived from Asen (Æsir), thus giving Osnabrück the meaning "bridge to the gods",[7] and previously Tacitus named people living near the grey river (Hase) Chasuarii. It may also be noted that Osnabrück is situated on the northern end of the Teutoburg Forest, which until the 19th century was known as the Osning.[citation needed] The city gave its name to the textile fabric of osnaburg.

History

[edit]
Historical population
YearPop.±%
780800—    
11713,500+337.5%
15006,000+71.4%
16465,500−8.3%
18008,564+55.7%
187123,308+172.2%
190051,573+121.3%
191065,957+27.9%
191985,017+28.9%
192588,911+4.6%
193394,277+6.0%
193999,070+5.1%
194688,663−10.5%
1950109,538+23.5%
1961138,658+26.6%
1970143,905+3.8%
1987150,807+4.8%
2011154,513+2.5%
2018164,748+6.6%
Population size may be affected by changes in administrative divisions. Source:[8]
Population development since 780

Medieval

[edit]

Osnabrück initially developed as a marketplace next to the bishopric founded by Charlemagne, King of the Franks, in 780. Some time prior to 803, the city became the seat of the Prince-Bishopric of Osnabrück. Although the precise date is uncertain, it is likely that Osnabrück is the oldest bishopric in Lower Saxony.

In the year 804 Charlemagne was said to have founded the Gymnasium Carolinum in Osnabrück. This would make it the oldest German Gymnasium school, but the charter date is disputed by historians, some of whom believe it could be a forgery.

In 889 the town was given merchant, customs, and coinage privileges by King Arnulf of Carinthia. Osnabrück was first referred to in records as a "city" in 1147. A decade later, Emperor Frederick Barbarossa granted the city fortification privileges (Befestigungsrecht). Most of the towers which were part of the original fortifications are still visible in the city. Osnabrück became a member of the Hanseatic League in the 12th century, as well as a member of the Westphalian Federation of Cities.

The history of the town in the later Middle Ages was recorded in a chronicle by Albert Suho, one of Osnabrück's most important clerics in the 15th century.

Early Modern age

[edit]

From 1561 to 1639 there was a considerable amount of social unrest and tension in Osnabrück due to the Protestant Reformation, the Thirty Years' War and also witch hunting. In 1582, during the rule of Mayor Hammacher (1565–1588), 163 women were executed as alleged witches; most of them were burned alive. In total, 276 women were executed, along with 2 men who had been charged with wizardry.

The first Lutheran services were held in Osnabrück in 1543. Over the next century, Lutheranism expanded in the city and several Protestant bishops were elected. However, the Catholic churches continued to operate, and the city never became completely Lutheran. After the Thirty Years' War broke out, a Catholic bishop was elected in 1623, and the city was occupied by troops of the Catholic League in 1628.[9] The Gymnasium Carolinum was upgraded to a Jesuit university in 1632, but the university was closed a year later when the city was taken by Swedish troops and restored to Protestant control.

The Prince-Bishop's Palace, 1777

Peace negotiations took place in Osnabrück and the nearby city of Münster from 1643 to 1648. The twin Treaties of Osnabrück and Münster, collectively known as the Peace of Westphalia, ended the Thirty Years' War. Osnabrück was officially recognized as bi-confessional Catholic and Lutheran. The prince-bishopric would be held alternately by a Catholic bishop and a Lutheran bishop. The Protestant bishop would be selected from the descendants of the Dukes of Brunswick-Lüneburg, with priority given to the cadets of what became the House of Hanover. From 1667, prince-bishop Ernest Augustus, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, built the new baroque palace. His son, George I of Great Britain, died in the palace, at the time residence of his younger brother, prince-bishop Ernest Augustus, Duke of York and Albany, on a travel on 11 June 1727.

In the early 18th century, renowned local jurist and social theorist Justus Möser wrote a highly influential constitutional history of the town, the Osnabrücker Geschichte.[10] Following the Seven Years' War, the town's population fell below 6,000, however an economic revival linked to the linen and tobacco industries caused it to rise again from the 1780s onwards.[11]

19th century

[edit]

The French Revolutionary Wars brought Prussian troops into the city in 1795, followed by the French in 1803.[12] As a result, the town's population was kept below 10,000 for the whole first decade of the 19th century.[12] The Napoleonic period saw possession of the city change hands several times. Control of Osnabrück passed to the Electorate of Hanover in 1803 during the German Mediatisation, and then briefly to the Kingdom of Prussia in 1806. From 1807 to 1810 the city was part of the Kingdom of Westphalia, after which it passed to the First French Empire. After 1815, it became part of the Kingdom of Hanover.

St. Peter's Cathedral

The town's first railway line was built in 1855, connecting it with Löhne. Further rail connections appeared over the following decades, connecting Osnabrück with Emden from 1856, Cologne from 1871 and Hamburg from 1874.[13] In 1866, Osnabrück was annexed by Prussia after the Austro-Prussian War and administered as part of the Province of Hanover. Growth of the local economy and population was fuelled by expansion in the engineering and textile industries, with the Hammersen Weaving Mill established in 1869 and the Osnabrücker Kupfer- und Drahtwerk metallurgical firm following in 1873.[12] The later 19th century also saw growth in the number of schools and the arrival of electricity and modern sanitation.[14]

20th century

[edit]

By 1914, Osnabrück had over 70,000 inhabitants.[12] The outbreak of the First World War necessitated food rationing; the Allied blockade and a harsh winter in 1917 led to further shortages.[14] Following Germany's defeat in 1918, a council made up of workers and soldiers took control during the November Revolution, but were replaced by the new Weimar Republic the following year.[15] Similarly to many other German cities, Osnabrück experienced considerable inflation and unemployment in the 1920s, with over 2,000 out of work by 1923 and nearly 14,000 receiving some form of government assistance by 1928.[16]

Politically, Osnabrück in the 1920s was a stronghold of support for the Social Democrats and the Catholic Centre Party. However, in the Reichstag elections of September 1930, the Nazi Party received the greatest percentage of votes in the city (nearly 28%) – a more than seven-fold increase from their electoral performance in Osnabrück two years prior.[17] During the campaigns prior to the two federal elections in 1932, both Adolf Hitler and Joseph Goebbels made well-attended speeches in the city.[18]

Southern part of the inner city

Following the Nazis' seizure of power in January 1933, Osnabrück was subjected to the implementation of National Socialist economic, political, and social programmes. These resulted in economic growth for ethnic Germans who did not run afoul of the new regime, and the town went from having over 10,000 unemployed in early 1933 to actually having a labour shortage five years later.[19] However, dissenters, supporters of opposition parties and German Jews (who had experienced centuries of discrimination in the city[20]) did not share in this growth and found themselves discriminated against, imprisoned or forced to close their businesses and leave town.[21] During World War II, both Jews and Romani people were deported to concentration camps and extermination camps en masse.[22] In October 1942, a subcamp of the 2nd SS construction brigade (forced labour camp) in Bremen was established in Osnabrück.[23] 86 of the 250 prisoners died of starvation and maltreatment before the subcamp's dissolution in May 1943.[23] Osnabrück was also the location of the Oflag VI-C and Oflag 66 prisoner-of-war camps for Serbian, French and Belgian officers.[24]

The war ended for Osnabrück on 4 April 1945, when the XVII Corps of Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery's Second Army entered the city with little resistance.[25] By this time, the city had been extensively bombed and required major reconstructive programmes following the war's end. Leading Nazis fled the city and the British appointed a new mayor, Johannes Petermann. However, during the allied occupation of Germany a British military governor, Colonel Geoffrey Day was placed in charge of administering the city.[26] Relations between the occupiers and the citizens of Osnabrück were generally peaceful, though tensions existed; some minor fights broke out between British soldiers and local youths and some Osnabrückers resented the relationships that developed between the occupiers and local women.[27] Additionally, the British took over more than seventy homes for their own use by the middle of 1946.[28] Amidst shortages, the black market thrived and became one of the main focuses of police activity.[29]

After World War II West Germany realigned its states; Osnabrück became part of the new state of Lower Saxony in 1946. The British continued to maintain Osnabrück Garrison, a garrison near the city, which at one point was the largest British garrison in the world, housing some 4,000 troops and employing around 500 local civilians.[30] It was the target of a PIRA attack in 1996.[31] Due to budget cuts, the troops were withdrawn in 2008 and the property returned to the local government.[32]

After three centuries, the city finally obtained its university when the government of Lower Saxony established the University of Osnabrück in 1974.

Largest foreign resident groups in Osnabrück as of 31 December 2017:[33]

Rank Nationality Population (31 December 2017)
1  Syria 2,725
2  Turkey 2,705
3  Bulgaria 2,025
4  Poland 1,580
5  Portugal 1,030

Climate

[edit]

The climate is Cfb (near Dfb) with warm, rainy summers and chilly to cold, dark winters.

Climate data for Osnabrück (1991–2020 normals)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 4.5
(40.1) 		5.6
(42.1) 		9.4
(48.9) 		14.4
(57.9) 		18.3
(64.9) 		21.2
(70.2) 		23.7
(74.7) 		23.3
(73.9) 		18.8
(65.8) 		13.8
(56.8) 		8.3
(46.9) 		4.8
(40.6) 		13.8
(56.8)
Daily mean °C (°F) 1.0
(33.8) 		1.2
(34.2) 		4.9
(40.8) 		9.3
(48.7) 		13.2
(55.8) 		16.5
(61.7) 		18.8
(65.8) 		18.8
(65.8) 		14.6
(58.3) 		10.0
(50.0) 		5.5
(41.9) 		1.8
(35.2) 		9.9
(49.8)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) −0.3
(31.5) 		0.0
(32.0) 		2.2
(36.0) 		4.8
(40.6) 		8.3
(46.9) 		11.1
(52.0) 		13.6
(56.5) 		13.3
(55.9) 		10.2
(50.4) 		6.7
(44.1) 		3.4
(38.1) 		0.4
(32.7) 		6.2
(43.2)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 83.3
(3.28) 		62.7
(2.47) 		66.6
(2.62) 		46.7
(1.84) 		62.8
(2.47) 		64.7
(2.55) 		85.3
(3.36) 		88.7
(3.49) 		73.2
(2.88) 		70.2
(2.76) 		78.2
(3.08) 		82.7
(3.26) 		885.1
(34.85)
Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) 18.3 17.5 17.7 13.9 14.8 14.6 16.4 15.1 15.5 16.9 19.3 19.1 200.7
Average relative humidity (%) 85.3 83.0 78.1 70.5 71.3 71.9 72.5 74.3 81.3 84.7 87.5 87.9 79.0
Mean monthly sunshine hours 51.1 65.0 111.6 169.6 199.2 195.7 211.0 190.4 137.2 104.1 47.1 42.4 1,497.1
Source: World Meteorological Organization[34]

Main sights

[edit]
Heger Tor, a memorial to Elector Georg's 'German' Legion
Osnabrück Palace
  • Town Hall
  • St. Peter's Cathedral, founded in the 11th century. It has two façade towers, originally the same size
  • Gerdrudenberg Monastery
  • Marienkirche
  • Heger Tor ("Heger Gate"), a monument to the soldiers from Osnabrück who died at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815
  • Bucksturm, the oldest tower in the city, and once part of the city walls. It was once used as a prison for women accused of witchcraft
  • Ruwe Fountain" (1985), created to mark the city's 1200th birthday
  • Gladiator 2000 (1986), a gigantic painting measuring (45 m × 6 m or 148 ft × 20 ft), by Nicu Covaci
  • Felix Nussbaum Haus, a gallery and museum dedicated to the Jewish artist and painter Felix Nussbaum, who was murdered during the Holocaust. It was designed by the architect Daniel Libeskind
  • Kalkriese Museum, situated on the battlefield of the Battle of the Teutoburger Wald in the Wiehen Hills, where German tribes under Arminius destroyed three Roman legions. It exhibits artefacts unearthed on the battlefield and tells the story of the battle
  • Osnabrücker Schloss (castle[35]/palace[36]) 17th century Baroque construction, nowadays the main building of the University of Osnabrück. It is the place were George I of Great Britain died.
  • Botanischer Garten der Universität Osnabrück, the university's botanical garden
  • Old town with its small streets and medieval buildings
  • Osnabrück Zoo
  • Vitischanze – formerly a defence station in the north-west of the old city, it has the only undestroyed bridge in Europe with a defence walk below its surface. It is also the site of certain faculty of the University of Applied Science. It was earlier used as a casino
  • Haseuferweg
  • Katharinenkirche (St. Catherine's Church), which dates back to 1248 and is one of the 150 tallest churches in the world, and also the tallest medieval building in Lower Saxony[37]
  • Hyde Park, a traditional music hall established in 1976, a haven of pop music and youth culture[38]
  • Leysieffer, a traditional German chocolate producer founded in Osnabrück. The main Leysieffer site is in the city centre.

Education

[edit]

There are two higher education institutions in Osnabrück, University of Osnabrück and Osnabrück University of Applied Sciences with more than 25,000 students. All of the types of German grammar schools are represented in the city, including seven Gymnasien. Gymnasium Carolinum claims to be the oldest still existing school in Germany. Another well-known Gymnasium is the Ursulaschule, a private school, located directly opposite the Carolinum. The University of Osnabrück invested heavily in infrastructure to take on more students for the following years.

Osnabrück, Germany, offers several vocational schools (Berufsbildende Schulen, or BBS) that provide practical education and training across various fields. Here are some notable institutions

  • Berufsbildende Schulen am Schölerberg (BBS am Schölerberg)[39]
  • Berufsbildende Schulen Brinkstraße (BBS Brinkstraße)[40]
  • Berufsbildende Schulen am Pottgraben (BBS am Pottgraben)

[41]

Sport

[edit]

The city's football team is VfL Osnabrück, founded in 1899. Currently, the team plays in the 2. Bundesliga. Its basketball team was founded the same year.

The Schlosswallhalle has been home to the GiroLive Panthers Osnabrück of the 1. Damen-Basketball-Bundesliga.

Politics

[edit]

The current mayor of Osnabrück is Katharina Pötter (CDU), elected in September 2021.[1]

Osnabrück is part of the electoral constituency Stadt Osnabrück for elections to the Bundestag.

Transport

[edit]

The city of Osnabrück is connected by road to the A1, the A30 and the A33. It shares its airport with Münster.

Osnabrück Hauptbahnhof (central railway station) is an important rail travel hub. Travellers from the Netherlands heading to either Hamburg, Denmark, or Eastern Europe often have to change here.[citation needed]

An extensive bus network operated by the Stadtwerke Osnabrück (public utility provider) provides public transport within the city and the surrounding region.[2] The central hub is situated on Neumarkt close to the main shopping street, roughly 10 minutes' walk from the railway station.

Districts of Osnabrück

[edit]
Boroughs of Osnabrück

The city is divided into 23 districts:

Twin towns – sister cities

[edit]
See also: List of twin towns and sister cities in Germany

Osnabrück is twinned with:[42]

Twinning with Derby

[edit]

Previously Osnabrück had made contact with the British authorities as early as 1948, hoping to find an English twin town and therefore achieve greater understanding with their former enemies in the Second World War. This attempt was unsuccessful and Osnabrück did not actively consider the idea again for another quarter-century. The twinning agreement with Derby was signed on 17 February 1976.[43] Every year since then the two cities have exchanged envoys. Derby also has a square named after Osnabrück in honour of the twinning arrangement; this features an obelisk among other things.

Notable people

[edit]
Ernest Augustus, Duke of York, c. 1740
Sophia von Kielmansegg, Countess of Darlington, 18th century
Olaf Scholz, 2022
Christian Wulff, 2014
Friedrich Clemens Gerke, 1840
Erich Maria Remarque, 1929
Heike Nagel (née Hustede), 1966

Public service & public thinking

[edit]

The arts

[edit]

Science & business

[edit]

Sport

[edit]

See also

[edit]

General references

[edit]
  • Panayi, P. (2007), Life and Death in a German Town: Osnabrück from the Weimar Republic to World War II and Beyond, New York: Tauris Academic Studies ISBN 978-0-85771-440-4
  • Team Strategische Stadtentwicklung und Statistik (August 2013), 02001 Amtliche Einwohnerzahlen der Stadt Osnabrück und der angrenzenden Gemeinden Stand: Volkszählung 25.5.1987 und jeweils 31.12. (PDF) (in German), City of Osnabrück, p. 1, retrieved 1 January 2014

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b "Stichwahlen zu Direktwahlen in Niedersachsen vom 26. September 2021" (PDF). Landesamt für Statistik Niedersachsen. 13 October 2021.
  2. ^ "LSN-Online Regionaldatenbank, Tabelle A100001G: Fortschreibung des Bevölkerungsstandes, Stand 31. Dezember 2022" (in German). Landesamt für Statistik Niedersachsen.
  3. ^ "Osnabrück AKTUELL 4/2016" (PDF) (in German). Stadt Osnabrück. April 2016. Retrieved 16 June 2017.
  4. ^ "Staedtereport_Osnabrueck_okt_2009.pdf (application/pdf-Objekt; 106 kB)" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 February 2015. Retrieved 3 May 2015.
  5. ^ Hall, Allan (12 July 2008). "Garrison town fears slump as army pulls out". The Guardian.
  6. ^ "Stadtporträt: Osnabrück stellt sich vor".
  7. ^ "Environmental Education at the University of Osnabrück" (in German). Umweltbildung.uni-osnabrueck.de. Retrieved 6 June 2020.
  8. ^ Link
  9. ^ Greengrass, Mark (2014). Christendom Destroyed: Europe 1517–1648. Penguin. ISBN 9780698176256. Both cities carried the scars o the war, but Osnabrück suffered worse, subjected to the troops of the Catholic League (1628-32) and a forcible Catholicization, and then Swedish war contributions.
  10. ^ Panayi 2007, pp. 15–16.
  11. ^ Panayi 2007, p. 15.
  12. ^ a b c d Panayi 2007, p. 16.
  13. ^ Panayi 2007, p. 16-17.
  14. ^ a b Panayi 2007, p. 17.
  15. ^ Panayi 2007, p. 17-18.
  16. ^ Panayi 2007, p. 18.
  17. ^ Panayi 2007, p. 37.
  18. ^ Panayi 2007, p. 44.
  19. ^ Panayi 2007, p. 55.
  20. ^ "OSNABRÜCK". jewishencyclopedia.com.
  21. ^ Panayi 2007, p. 23-24,81, 186–200.
  22. ^ Panayi 2007, p. 197-98,211.
  23. ^ a b "Osnabrück (2nd SS Construction Brigade)". KZ-Gedenkstätte Neuengamme. Retrieved 24 October 2023.
  24. ^ Megargee, Geoffrey P.; Overmans, Rüdiger; Vogt, Wolfgang (2022). The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Encyclopedia of Camps and Ghettos 1933–1945. Volume IV. Indiana University Press, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. pp. 222, 247. ISBN 978-0-253-06089-1.
  25. ^ Panayi 2007, p. 137.
  26. ^ Panayi 2007, p. 135,137.
  27. ^ Panayi 2007, p. 136-37.
  28. ^ Panayi 2007, p. 150-51.
  29. ^ Panayi 2007, p. 153-56.
  30. ^ "IOE Archives". Archive.ioe.ac.uk. Retrieved 1 January 2014.
  31. ^ Geraghty, Tony (2000). The Irish War. Johns Hopkins University Press, p. 193. ISBN 0-00-255617-0
  32. ^ "British soldiers march out of Osnabrück after 63 years". The Local. 19 July 2008. Archived from the original on 25 June 2009.
  33. ^ "Bevölkerungsaufbau 2013 und Bevölkerungsveränderungen" (PDF). Stadt Osnabrück. Retrieved 25 July 2014.
  34. ^ "World Meteorological Organization Climate Normals for 1991–2020". World Meteorological Organization Climatological Standard Normals (1991–2020). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 12 October 2023. Retrieved 13 October 2023.
  35. ^ "Osnabrück and Iburg Castle". www.germany.travel. Archived from the original on 26 June 2015. Retrieved 26 May 2015.
  36. ^ [1] p.19. Retrieved 26 May 2015
  37. ^ "Höchstes mittelalterliches Bauwerk Niedersachsens". Osnabrück civic site. Retrieved 7 November 2011.
  38. ^ Hyde Park-Memories Archived 6 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved 13 December 2011
  39. ^ "Historie". https://www.bbs-schoelerberg.de (in German). Retrieved 15 November 2024. {{cite web}}: External link in |website= (help)
  40. ^ "Historie". https://bbs-os-brinkstr.de/ (in German). Retrieved 15 November 2024. {{cite web}}: External link in |website= (help)
  41. ^ "International European School What makes us a European school?". https://www.bbs-pottgraben.de (in German). Retrieved 15 November 2024. {{cite web}}: External link in |website= (help)
  42. ^ "Freunde und Partner". osnabrueck.de (in German). Osnabrück. Retrieved 6 March 2021.
  43. ^ "Town twinning". Derby City Council. Archived from the original on 15 October 2023. Retrieved 15 October 2023.
  44. ^ Löffler, Klemens (1912). "Friedrich Staphylus" . Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 14.
  45. ^ Vian, Alsager Richard (1889). "Ernest Augustus (1674-1728)" . Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 17. p. 393.
  46. ^ "Möser, Justus" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 18 (11th ed.). 1911. p. 895.
  47. ^ "Fortlage, Karl" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 10 (11th ed.). 1911. p. 725.
  48. ^ "Abeken, Heinrich" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 1 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 38–39.
  49. ^ Spahn, Martin (1912). "Ludwig Windthorst" . Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 15.
  50. ^ "Blass, Friedrich" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 4 (11th ed.). 1911. p. 44.
  51. ^ Fagan, Louis Alexander (1887). "Closterman, John" . Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 11. pp. 125–126.

Further reading

[edit]
[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Osnabrück.
Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Osnabrück.
Wikisource has the text of the 1879 American Cyclopædia article Osnabrück.
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